Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública/Pan American Journal of Public Health

Objective. To examine health care use and expenditures by Brazilians covered by private health care plans in the last four years of life.
Methods. Health plan provider enrollee files and death certificate data were used for 274 health plan beneficiaries who died in 1998, 1999, and 2000. Resources used for a beneficiary in the year of death and in the three years prior to death were identified. Descriptive statistical analyses were used for clinical and socio-demographic characteristics and to describe the costs.
Results. Of the 274 deaths included in this analysis, 92 occurred in 1998, 82 in 1999, and 100 in 2000. Most of the deceased were males (61.4%). Distribution in terms of type of health plan coverage (full versus hospitalization-only coverage) was similar among beneficiaries (53% had hospitalization only and 47% had full coverage). The total health plan expenditure in the last four years of life for the 274 decedents was US$ 26 300 283 (US$ 12 287 723 for beneficiaries with hospitalization-only and US$ 14 012 560 for those with full coverage). Expenditures increased progressively in the four years preceding death. About 70% of medical expenses for decedents in the four years of this analysis were incurred in the last year of life.
Conclusion. Relatively large amounts of health care resources are used by Brazilian private health plan participants in their last year of life, suggesting that specific strategies are needed to optimize the allocation of medical care resources for these patients.

Costos de la atención sanitaria en los últimos cuatro años de vida de beneficiarios de seguros privados de salud en Brasil

Objetivo. Examinar la utilización de los servicios de salud y los gastos asociados durante los últimos cuatro años de vida de brasileños con seguro privado de salud.
Métodos. Se emplearon los expedientes del seguro y los certificados de defunción de 274 beneficiarios de seguros de salud que murieron entre 1998 y 2000. Se identificaron los recursos utilizados para cada beneficiario durante el año que murió y los tres años anteriores. Mediante métodos estadísticos descriptivos se analizaron las características clínicas y sociodemográficas y se describieron los costos.
Resultados. De los 274 fallecidos analizados, 92 murieron en 1998, 82 en 1999 y 100 en 2000; la mayoría de ellos (61,4%) eran hombres. La distribución según el tipo de seguro de salud fue similar (cobertura total: 47%; solo cobertura de hospitalización: 53%). El gasto total del seguro de salud en los últimos cuatro años de vida de los 274 fallecidos fue de US$ 26 300 283 (US$ 12 287 723 para los beneficiarios con cobertura de hospitalización solamente y US$ 14 012 560 para los que tenían cobertura total). Los gastos aumentaron progresivamente en los cuatro años previos a la muerte. Cerca de 70% de los gastos médicos de los fallecidos en los cuatro años analizados correspondieron al último año de vida.
Conclusiones. Los brasileños con seguro médico privado utilizan una cantidad relativamente grande de recursos sanitarios en su último año de vida, por lo que se requieren estrategias específicas para optimizar la asignación de recursos de atención médica para estos pacientes.

Universities and health promotion: how can the two come together?

Universities play a leading role in the communities in which they are found. Focused on leadership and developing knowledge, universities are the stage on which community members are formed. Through education, research, and by spreading knowledge, universities guide and support changes at the national and international levels. The university that advances health is one that joins health promotion with its purpose, aiming to foster human development and improve quality of life for its students and employees, thus impacting both the labor and social circles. It aspires to take a leading role in cultural change by raising awareness among the more educated, open, enterprising, and upstanding, and those committed to progress.

This article’s objective is to share a reflective analysis regarding the relationship between the university and health promotion in order to motivate and recommend action items to other universities advanced in this area. This analysis stems from experience gained over several years at the Pontificia Universidad Católica of Chile, through its health program, UC Saludable, in addition to a systematic review of the literature covering several years. The analysis develops four concepts that are central to all universities and that frame the health promotion effort: respond to health issues and educate the public; produce and disseminate health promotion knowledge; direct and support awareness of self-care and healthy lifestyles; and be a model change agent.

Las universidades desempeñan un papel protagónico en la sociedad donde están insertas. Orientadas al liderazgo y al desarrollo del conocimiento, son escenario de formación técnica y profesional de los miembros de la comunidad y, a través de la educación, la investigación y la difusión del saber, orientan y apoyan los cambios en diversos espacios nacionales e internacionales. Toda universidad cumple su misión social al penetrar en la cultura en que está inmersa, mediante el avance constante del saber en los temas de mayor relevancia y necesidad para cada país. De esta forma, las instituciones de educación superior buscan comprender los fenómenos y aportar soluciones que enriquezcan y orienten el futuro nacional, regional y mundial. En otras palabras, la existencia misma de una universidad implica su participación en la cultura y en los procesos relevantes de la nación a la que pertenece.

Home care’s contribution to alternative health care networks: deinstitutionalization and transformation of practices

Objective. To identify state-of-the-art home care within Brazil’s public health system, evaluate its potential for improving the comprehensiveness and humanization of care, and identify areas for expanding this care modality.
Methods. Seven home care initiatives were examined and cases were analyzed through interviews with five municipal services managers, seven service coordinators, all home-care team members, and with the service recipients, as well as the family members of the 27 cases selected. All of the interviews were recorded and transcribed. We also analyzed documents created by the home care services (policy manuals, management reports, evaluation reports, and care protocols), observed each team providing care (at least once for each of the seven service types), and analyzed the selected cases.
Results. The following types of home care were identified: palliative, AIDS, skin lesions/wounds, premature infant, bedridden patient, and supplemental intravenous antibiotic therapy for acute infection. The following positive aspects should be highlighted: the quality and humanization of care, team work, the bond developed with patients and family, the sense of responsibility taken on by the health workers, and the effective participation of caretakers and families in carrying out therapy plans.
Conclusion. The initiatives examined show that home care is possible even in economically disadvantaged environments and that it may effectively contribute to providing integrated and continued care. Home care should be expanded in the context of the public health system.

Objetivo. Identificar o estado da arte da atenção domiciliar no âmbito do sistema público de saúde no Brasil, analisar o seu potencial de inovação no sentido da integralidade e da humanização da atenção e indicar pistas para a sua ampliação.
Métodos. Sete experiências de cuidado domiciliar em cinco municípios brasileiros foram analisadas por meio de estudos de caso, com base em entrevistas com os cinco gestores municipais e os sete coordenadores dos serviços, com todos os componentes das equipes de atenção domiciliar e com os usuários e os familiares dos 27 casos selecionados. Todas as entrevistas foram gravadas e depois transcritas. Foram ainda analisados documentos produzidos pelos serviços (proposta política, relatórios de gestão, relatórios de avaliação, rotinas e protocolos de atenção), observados atendimentos (ao menos um de cada uma das equipes em todos os sete serviços) e analisados os casos traçadores.
Resultados. Foram identificados os seguintes tipos de atendimento domiciliar: cuidado paliativo, cuidado a pacientes com AIDS, cuidado a portadores de feridas e lesões de pele, acompanhamento de bebês prematuros, acompanhamento de acamados crônicos, antibioticoterapia endovenosa como complementação do tratamento para infecções agudas. São aspectos a destacar: a qualidade e a humanização da atenção, o trabalho em equipe, o desenvolvimento de vínculo e a responsabilização por parte dos trabalhadores e a participação efetiva dos cuidadores e das famílias na produção dos projetos terapêuticos.
Conclusão. As iniciativas examinadas mostraram que a atenção domiciliar é possível até em ambientes economicamente precários e que pode contribuir efetivamente para a produção de integralidade e de continuidade do cuidado, devendo ser ampliada no âmbito do sistema público de saúde.

Objectives. To describe knowledge, practices, and associated factors of medical students to prevent transmission of tuberculosis (TB) in five medical schools.
Methods. Cross-sectional survey of undergraduate medical students in preclinical and in early and late clinical years. Information was obtained on sociodemographic profile, previous lectures on TB, knowledge about TB transmission, exposure to patients with active pulmonary TB, and use of respiratory protective masks.
Results. Among 1 094 respondents, 575 (52.6%) correctly answered that coughing, speaking, and sneezing can transmit TB. Early [adjusted odds ratio = 4.0 (3.0, 5.5)] and late [adjusted odds ratio = 4.2 (3.1, 5.8)] clinical years were associated with correct answers, but having had previous lectures on TB was not. Among those who had previous lectures on TB, the rate of correct answers increased from 42.1% to 61.6%. Among 332 medical students who reported exposure to TB patients, 194 (58.4%) had not used protective masks. More years of clinical experience was associated with the use of masks [adjusted odds ratio = 2.9 (1.4, 6.1)], while knowledge was inversely associated with the use of masks [adjusted odds ratio = 0.4 (0.2, 0.6)].
Conclusions. Many medical students are not aware of the main routes of TB infection, and lectures on TB are not sufficient to change knowledge and practices. Regardless of knowledge about TB transmission, students engage in risky behaviors: more than two-thirds do not use a protective mask when examining an active TB case. We suggest innovative, effective active learning experiences to change this scenario.

los estudiantes de medicina para prevenir la transmisión de la tuberculosis en Río de Janeiro, Brasil

Objetivos. Describir los conocimientos y las prácticas de los estudiantes de medicina para prevenir la transmisión de la tuberculosis (TB) en cinco escuelas de medicina y sus factores asociados.
Métodos. Estudio transversal mediante encuesta a estudiantes de medicina de cursos preclínicos, clínicos iniciales y clínicos avanzados. Se obtuvo información del perfil sociodemográfico, las conferencias recibidas sobre TB, el conocimiento sobre la transmisión de la TB, la exposición a pacientes con TB pulmonar activa y el uso de máscaras respiratorias de protección.
Resultados. De los 1 094 encuestados, 575 (52,6%) respondieron correctamente que toser, hablar y estornudar pueden transmitir la TB. Estar en los cursos clínicos iniciales (razón de posibilidades ajustada [ORa] = 4,0; intervalo de confianza de 95% [IC95%]: 3,0 a 5,5) y avanzados (ORa = 4,2; IC95%: 3,1 a 5,8) se asociaron con las respuestas correctas, no así haber recibido conferencias sobre TB. La tasa de respuestas correctas aumentó de 42,1% a 61,6% en los estudiantes que habían recibido conferencias sobre TB. De los 332 estudiantes de medicina que informaron haber estado expuestos a pacientes con TB, 194 (58,4%) no usaron máscaras protectoras. El mayor número de años de experiencia clínica se asoció con el uso de máscaras (ORa = 2,9; IC95%: 1,4 a 6,1), mientras que el conocimiento sobre el tema se asoció inversamente con el uso de máscaras (ORa = 0,4; IC95%: 0,2 a 0,6).
Conclusiones. Muchos estudiantes de medicina no conocen las vías principales de infección de la TB y las conferencias sobre TB no son suficientes para modificar sus conocimientos y actitudes. Independientemente del conocimiento sobre la transmisión de la TB, los estudiantes incurrieron en conductas de riesgo: más de dos terceras partes no usó máscaras protectoras al examinar casos activos de TB. Se recomienda establecer prácticas docentes innovadoras, efectivas y activas para cambiar este escenario.

Objectives. To describe demographic and practice characteristics of male and female midwives in private practice (MIPPs) in 10 cities of Peru, and their role in the delivery of reproductive health care, specifically management of sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
Methods. As part of an intervention trial in 10 cities in the provinces of Peru designed to improve STI management, detailed information was collected regarding the number of midwives in each city working in various types of practices. A door-to-door survey of all medical offices and institutions in each city was conducted. Each MIPP encountered was asked to answer a questionnaire regarding demographics, training, practice type(s), number of STI cases seen per month, and average earnings per consultation.
Results. Of the 905 midwives surveyed, 442 reported having a private practice, either exclusively or concurrently with other clinical positions; 99.3% of these MIPPs reported managing STI cases. Andean cities had the highest density of MIPPs, followed by jungle and coastal cities, respectively. Jungle cities had the largest proportion of male MIPPs (35.5%). While both male and female MIPPs reported seeing male patients, male MIPPs saw a significantly greater number than their female counterparts.
Conclusions. In areas of Peru where physicians are scarce, MIPPs provide needed reproductive health services, including STI management. Male MIPPs in particular appear to serve as health care providers for male patients with STIs. This trend, which may exist in other developing countries with similar healthcare workforce demographics, highlights the need for new areas of training and health services research.

¿Se prefieren enfermeros obstétricos para el control de las infecciones de trasmisión sexual en hombres en los países en desarrollo?

Objetivos. Describir las características demográficas y de la práctica profesional del personal de enfermería obstétrica en consultorios privados (ECP) según el sexo en 10 ciudades de Perú y el papel que desempeñan en los cuidados de salud reproductiva, específicamente en la atención de las infecciones de transmisión sexual (ITS).
Métodos. Como parte de un ensayo de intervención en 10 ciudades de diferentes provincias de Perú, diseñado para mejorar la atención de las ITS, se recogió información detallada del personal de enfermería obstétrica ocupado en diferentes tipos de consultorios de cada ciudad. Se realizó una encuesta de puerta en puerta en todos los consultorios e instituciones médicas de cada ciudad. A cada ECP localizado se le pidió responder un cuestionario sobre datos demográficos, entrenamiento, tipo(s) de consultorio( s), número de casos de ITS atendidos mensualmente e ingresos medios por consulta.
Resultados. De los 905 enfermeros y enfermeras encuestados, 442 informaron tener una consulta privada, ya sea de forma exclusiva o concurrente con otros cargos clínicos; 99,3% de estos ECP manifestaron atender casos de ITS. Las ciudades andinas presentaron la mayor densidad de ECP, seguidas por las de la selva y la costa, en ese orden. Las ciudades de la selva presentaron la mayor proporción de ECP hombres (35,5%). Aunque tanto los ECP hombres como las ECP mujeres informaron atender pacientes masculinos con ITS, los ECP hombres atendieron un número significativamente mayor que sus contrapartes mujeres.
Conclusiones. En zonas de Perú donde no hay suficientes médicos, los ECP ofrecen los servicios necesarios de salud reproductiva, incluida la atención de las ITS. En particular, los ECP hombres parecen servir como proveedores de atención sanitaria a pacientes masculinos con ITS. Esta tendencia, que podría existir en otros países en desarrollo con personal sanitario con características demográficas similares, resalta la necesidad de establecer nuevas líneas de entrenamiento e investigación en servicios de salud.

Application of key frameworks to an indicator-based evaluation of environmental health in Latin America and the Caribbean

The establishment of environmental health indicators for assessing the adverse effects of environmental changes on the population’s health and quality of life is, as yet, a goal that has not been fully reached in Latin America and the Caribbean. As such, the United Nations Environment Program and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) have convened Region’s institutions and experts to develop a comprehensive method for assessing environmental health. This paper evaluates several methodologies, comprehensive or otherwise, for assessing health and the environment, and describes the frameworks that have historically undergirded the key methods that have either structured or generated the environmental health indicators being used in Latin America and the Caribbean. The recurring, methodological limitations were identified: (a) relying heavily on secondary data, which points out the need for technological infrastructure that is rarely available in Latin America and the Caribbean today; and (b) a lack of clear criteria for developing inclusive tools that would facilitate the discussion of environmental health issues at the grass-roots level. Despite the progress made by the field of environmental health with regard to understanding its interdisciplinary complexities, intersectoral operations must be improved to favor open communication and implementation of integrated policies on environmental and health.

La construcción de indicadores de salud ambiental para evaluar el efecto adverso de los cambios ambientales sobre el bienestar y la calidad de vida de la población es una meta todavía no alcanzada totalmente en América Latina y el Caribe. Por ello, el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente y la Organización Panamericana de la Salud han convocado a instituciones y especialistas de toda la Región para desarrollar un método integral de evaluación del medio ambiente y la salud. En este trabajo se hace un análisis crítico de varias de las metodologías de evaluación ambiental y sanitaria (integrales o no) y se describen, desde una perspectiva histórica, los marcos conceptuales que fundamentan los principales métodos ordenadores o generadores de indicadores de salud ambiental utilizados en América Latina y el Caribe. Se identificaron dos limitaciones metodológicas recurrentes: a) la fuerte dependencia de datos secundarios, lo que implica la necesidad de una capacidad tecnológica instalada poco accesible en América Latina y el Caribe en la actualidad; y b) la falta de criterios claros para desarrollar instrumentos participativos que faciliten la evaluación de problemas de salud ambiental a nivel local. A pesar de los avances alcanzados en el campo de la salud ambiental en cuanto a la comprensión de su complejidad interdisciplinaria, aún se deben mejorar los mecanismos intersectoriales que favorezcan la discusión e implementación de políticas integradas de medio ambiente y salud.

Current perspectives on health care for the older adult

Standing up to the challenges of aging requires a coordinated strategy, disseminating a geriatric focus among all the specialty areas that serve the older adult. This article addresses the reasons that justify this focus and covers the objectives, goals, and methods currently being proposed to develop the approach. Preventive and curative actions, but most importantly, the overall care of seniors and improvements to their functional status, are priorities for securing a better quality of life in old age.

Enfrentar los retos de envejecer requiere una estrategia coordinada, difundiendo un foco geriátrico entre todas las áreas de la especialidad que atienden a la persona de edad. Este artículo aborda las razones que justifican este foco y abarca los objetivos, metas y métodos actualmente proponiéndose para desarrollar el enfoque. Las acciones preventivas y curativas, pero lo que es más importante la atención general de los adultos mayores y mejoras a su estado funcional, son prioridades para asegurar una mejor calidad de vida en la vejez.

Health surveys and use of maternal and child health care services in three municipalities within the São Paulo metropolitan area

Objectives. To describe the changes in the use of maternal and child health care services by residents of three municipalities—Embu, Itapecerica da Serra, and Taboão da Serra—in the São Paulo metropolitan area, 12 years after the implementation of the Unified Health System (SUS) in Brazil, and to analyze the potential of populationbased health care surveys as sources of data to evaluate these changes.
Methods. Two population-based, cross-sectional surveys were carried out in 1990 and 2002 in municipalities located within the São Paulo metropolitan area. For children under 1 year of age, the two periods were compared in terms of outpatient services utilization and hospital admission; for the mothers, the periods were compared in terms of prenatal care and deliveries. In both surveys, stratified and multiple-stage conglomerate sampling was employed, with standardization of interview questions.
Results. The most important changes observed were regarding the location of services used for prenatal care, deliveries, and hospitalization of children less than 1 year of age. There was a significant increase in the use of services in the surrounding region or hometown, and decrease in the utilization of services in the city of São Paulo (in 1990, 80% of deliveries and almost all admissions for children less than 1 year versus 32% and 46%, respectively, in 2002). The use of primary care units and 24-hour walk-in clinics also increased. All these changes reflect care provided by public resources. In the private sector, there was a decrease in direct payments and payments through company-paid health insurance and an increase in payments through selfpaid health insurance.
Conclusions. The major changes observed in the second survey occurred simultaneous to the changes that resulted from the implementation of the SUS. Populationbased health surveys are adequate for analyzing and comparing the utilization of health care services at different times.

Objetivos. Descrever as mudanças na utilização de serviços de saúde materno-infantis por residentes em três municípios da Grande São Paulo (Embu, Itapecerica da Serra e Taboão da Serra) 12 anos após a implantação do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) e analisar o potencial dos inquéritos de saúde de base populacional como fonte de dados para avaliar as mudanças nesses serviços.
Métodos. Em 1990 e 2002, foram realizados dois inquéritos de base populacional, de corte transversal, em municípios da região metropolitana de São Paulo. Para os menores de 1 ano, os dois períodos foram comparados quanto à utilização de serviços de saúde ambulatoriais e hospitalizações; para as mães, os períodos foram comparados quanto à realização de pré-natal e parto. Em ambos os inquéritos, utilizou-se a amostragem por conglomerados em múltiplos estágios e estratificada, com padronização de questões das entrevistas.
Resultados. As alterações de maior destaque corresponderam à localização dos serviços utilizados para pré-natal, partos e hospitalização de menores de 1 ano. Houve elevação significativa na utilização dos serviços no município de residência ou região e redução na participação do Município de São Paulo (80% dos partos e praticamente todas as internações de menores de 1 ano em 1990 contra 32% dos partos e 46% das internações de menores de 1 ano em 2002). Também aumentou a utilização de unidades básicas de saúde e prontos-socorros. Essas alterações referiram-se aos atendimentos financiados pelo setor público de saúde. No setor privado, ocorreu queda do desembolso direto e dos convênios de empresa e crescimento dos planos individuais.
Conclusões. As principais mudanças verificadas no segundo inquérito ocorreram paralelamente às alterações provenientes da implantação do SUS. Os inquéritos de saúde de base populacional mostraram-se adequados para analisar e comparar a utilização de serviços em diferentes períodos.

Health-related quality of life among people with intellectual disabilities in Spain

Objective. To measure health-related quality-of-life (HRQL) among people with intellectual disabilities in the province of Salamanca, Spain.
Methods. A population-based, cross-sectional descriptive study. The SF-36 Health Survey, adapted and validated for the Spanish population, was selected and administered to 265 people with intellectual disabilities in the province of Salamanca, Spain. Personal interviews were also conducted with the participants in the presence of their parents, tutors, or close family. Eight quality-of-life scales were explored: general health, physical functioning, role–physical, bodily pain, role–emotional, social functioning, vitality, and mental health, based on questions on sociodemographic and lifestyle variables, health services utilization, support needs, and health status and HRQL.
Results. Of the 265 people studied, 69.8% were men and 30.2% were women (median age: 35 years; minimum: 16; maximum: 72). The highest number of points pertained to role–physical and physical functioning (more than 85 points), and the lowest, to general health and vitality (less than 70 points). No significant differences were found between men and women for any of the eight components. The independent variables, age, family income, level of education, and support needs showed the greatest number of independent associations with the general health, physical functioning, and social functioning components. Of the participants, 41.5% indicated that they felt their health was good.
Conclusions. The study participants perceived their HRQL to be good, especially on the role–physical and physical functioning scales. Additional studies should be designed to evaluate HRQL in people with different degrees of intellectual disability to further contribute to intervention efforts and health and social programs designed specifically for this population group and to evaluate the interventions and program already underway.

Objetivo. Establecer la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud (CVRS) percibida por las personas con discapacidad intelectual en la provincia de Salamanca, España.
Métodos. Estudio descriptivo transversal de base poblacional. Se aplicó el cuestionario de salud SF-36, adaptado y validado para la población española, a 265 personas con discapacidad intelectual de la provincia de Salamanca, España. Se realizaron entrevistas personales a los participantes en presencia de sus padres, tutores o familiares cercanos. Se exploraron ocho dimensiones de la calidad de vida: salud general, función física, rol físico, rol emocional, función social, dolor corporal, vitalidad y salud mental a partir de variables sociodemográficas y de estilo de vida, utilización de servicios de salud, necesidades de apoyo, y estado de salud y CVRS.
Resultados. De las 265 personas estudiadas, 69,8% eran hombres y 30,2% eran mujeres (edad media: 35 años; mínima: 16; máxima: 72). Las puntuaciones máximas obtenidas correspondieron a las dimensiones rol físico y función física (por encima de 85 puntos) y las mínimas, a salud general y vitalidad (por debajo de 70 puntos). No se observaron diferencias significativas entre los hombres y las mujeres en ninguna de las ocho dimensiones. Las variables independientes edad, ingresos familiares, nivel educacional y necesidad de apoyo presentaron la mayor cantidad de asociaciones independientes con las dimensiones salud general, función física y función social. De los participantes, 41,5% manifestó que su salud percibida era buena.
Conclusiones. Los participantes en este estudio percibieron su CVRS como buena, especialmente en las dimensiones rol físico y función física. Se deben diseñar estudios para evaluar la CVRS en personas con diferentes grados de discapacidad intelectual para contribuir a elaborar intervenciones y programas sanitarios y sociales específicos para esta población y para evaluar las intervenciones y los programas en marcha.

In recent years, it has become increasingly more common to find that the declarations, resolutions, and documents of various organizations contain an appeal to improve, update, and develop valid, timely, useful, and representative information on external causes of injury (ECI). Almost all of the United Nations’ specialized agencies, including its General Assembly, have underscored its importance with the same urgency.

En los últimos años es frecuente encontrar en declaraciones, resoluciones y documentos de diversas instituciones llamados a mejorar, actualizar y hacer confiable, oportuna, útil y representativa la información sobre las lesiones de causa externa (LCE). Prácticamente todas las organizaciones especializadas de las Naciones Unidas, incluida su Asamblea General, han enfatizado la importancia de ello con singular insistencia.