Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública/Pan American Journal of Public Health

Socioeconomic inequality and its association with mortality indicators in the departments of Colombia in 2000

Objectives. To study the inequalities in various mortality indicators for the departments of Colombia with respect to national figures, and to identify associations between the departmental mortality indicators and departmental socioeconomic indicators.
Methods. To determine mortality rates and the Gini coefficient for mortality for the departments, data from the death registry were adjusted by the estimated registry coverage for each of the departments. Five socioeconomic indicators were selected: Gini coefficient for income distribution, Human Development Index, per capita gross domestic product, per capita social investment (in health care, etc.), and percentage of the population with health care services from the country’s social security system. The differences among the departments were then studied and compared to the national averages. The Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was calculated to find associations between the mortality indicators and each of the five socioeconomic indicators.
Results. For Colombia overall, death registry coverage was estimated at 76%, with Chocó department having the lowest coverage (35%), and Caldas department the highest (88%). The associations between the Gini coefficient for mortality and four of the socioeconomic indicators studied were significant. The national mortality rate was significantly associated with one socioeconomic indicator. Death caused by diabetes mellitus was associated with all the socioeconomic indicators; death caused by undernutrition or by diarrhea, with four socioeconomic indicators; and death from traffic accidents, with two socioeconomic indicators. Homicide was not associated with any of the socioeconomic indicators studied.
Conclusions. Adjusting the death registry data produced mortality indicators that were more valid for drawing associations with socioeconomic indicators. The Gini coefficient of mortality, mortality from undernutrition, and mortality from diarrheal diseases were more suitable indicators for evaluating the inequalities among the departments because of their higher levels of association with the socioeconomic indicators. Regarding diabetes-related mortality, the associations with all the socioeconomic indicators could be due to systematic errors that lesser-developed departments made when the cause of death was being assigned. A department is a large unit for analysis, which can make it difficult to identify associations between socioeconomic indicators and deaths due to homicide or traffic accidents.

Objetivos. Estudiar las desigualdades de indicadores de mortalidad departamentales con respecto a los valores nacionales colombianos e identificar asociaciones con indicadores socioeconómicos.
Métodos. Los datos del registro de defunciones se ajustaron según la cobertura estimada y se calcularon las tasas y los coeficientes de Gini de mortalidad. Se seleccionaron cinco indicadores socioeconómicos departamentales —el coeficiente de Gini de la distribución de ingresos, el índice de desarrollo humano, el índice del producto interno bruto per cápita, la inversión social per cápita y el porcentaje de la población con cobertura sanitaria pública— y se examinaron las diferencias entre los departamentos y el ámbito nacional. Se calcularon los coeficientes de correlación de Spearman entre los indicadores de mortalidad y los indicadores socioeconómicos seleccionados.
Resultados. La cobertura del registro de defunciones se estimó en un 76%; el departamento del Chocó presentó el menor valor (35%) y el de Caldas, el mayor (88%). El coeficiente de Gini de mortalidad se asoció significativamente con cuatro indicadores socioeconómicos estudiados y la tasa global de mortalidad, con un indicador. La mortalidad por diabetes mellitus se asoció positivamente con todos los indicadores socioeconómicos, las mortalidades por desnutrición y por diarrea, con cuatro indicadores, y la mortalidad por accidentes del tránsito, con dos indicadores. La mortalidad por agresiones no se asoció con ninguno de los indicadores estudiados.
Conclusiones. El ajuste de los datos de defunciones permitió obtener indicadores de mortalidad más válidos en la asociación con los indicadores socioeconómicos. El coeficiente de Gini de mortalidad y las mortalidades por desnutrición y diarreas resultaron más idóneos para evaluar las desigualdades interdepartamentales por la mejor asociación presentada con los indicadores socioeconómicos. La asociación encontrada entre la mortalidad por diabetes mellitus y los indicadores socioeconómicos puede deberse a un error sistemático al clasificar dicha enfermedad como causa básica de muerte en departamentos de bajo nivel de desarrollo. El departamento resulta una unidad de análisis muy grande, lo que puede dificultar la identificación de la asociación entre las mortalidades por agresiones y accidentes del tránsito, y los indicadores socioeconómicos.

Objectives. Health care systems throughout the world are in the process of restructuring and reforming their health service delivery systems, reorienting themselves to a primary health care (PHC) model that uses multidisciplinary practice (MDP) teams to provide a range of coordinated, integrated services. This study explores the challenges of putting the MDP approach into practice in one community in a city in Canada.
Methods. The data we analyzed were derived from a community-based participatory action research (CBPAR) project, conducted in 2004, that was used to enhance collaborative MDP in a PHC center serving a residential and small-business community of 11 000 within a medium-sized city of approximately 300 000 people in Canada. CBPAR is a planned, systematic approach to issues relevant to the community of interest, requires community involvement, has a problem-solving focus, is directed at societal change, and makes a lasting contribution to the community. We drew from one aspect of this complex, multiyear project aimed at transforming the rhetoric advocating PHC reform into actual sustainable practices. The community studied was diverse with respect to age, socioeconomics, and lifestyle. Its interdisciplinary team serves approximately 3 000 patients annually, 30% of whom are 65 years or older. This PHC center’s multidisciplinary, integrated approach to care makes it a member of a very distinct minority within the larger primary care system in Canada.
Results. Analysis of practice in PHC revealed entrenched and unconscious ideas of the limitations and boundaries of practice. In the rhetoric of PHC, MDP was lauded by many. In practice, however, collaborative, multidisciplinary team approaches to care were difficult to achieve.
Conclusions. The successful implementation of an MDP approach to PHC requires moving away from physician-driven care. This can only be achieved once there is a change in the underlying structures, values, power relations, and roles defined by the health care system and the community at large, where physicians are traditionally ranked above other care providers. The CBPAR methodology allows community members and the health-related professionals who serve them to take ownership of the research and to critically reflect on iterative cycles of evaluation. This provides an opportunity for practitioners to implement relevant changes based on internally generated analyses.

Investigación-acción participativa basada en la comunidad: transformación de la práctica multidisciplinaria en atención primaria de salud

Objetivos. Los sistemas de salud de todo el mundo se encuentran en un proceso de reestructuración y reforma de sus sistemas de prestación de servicios, reorientándose hacia el modelo de atención primaria de salud (APS) que utiliza equipos de consultorios multidisciplinarios (CMD) para brindar un conjunto de servicios coordinados e integrados. En este estudio se exploran los retos de poner en práctica el enfoque de CMD en una comunidad urbana de Canadá.
Métodos. Los datos analizados se tomaron de un proyecto de investigación-acción participativa basada en la comunidad (IAPBC) llevado a cabo en 2004. Su objetivo era perfeccionar un CMD colaborativo en un centro de APS que atiende a una comunidad de 11 000 personas, compuesta por una zona residencial y pequeños negocios, en una ciudad canadiense de aproximadamente 300 000 personas. La IAPBC permite abordar de manera planificada y sistemática problemas importantes para la comunidad en cuestión, requiere la participación de la comunidad, se enfoca hacia la solución de los problemas, se dirige a lograr cambios en la sociedad y hace contribuciones duraderas a la comunidad. Se partió de un aspecto de este complejo proyecto de varios años, para transformar la defensa retórica de la reforma de la APS en una práctica real y sustentable. La comunidad estudiada era diversa en cuanto a la edad, las características socioeconómicas y los estilos de vida. Su equipo multidisciplinario atendía aproximadamente a 3 000 pacientes al año, 30% de los cuales tenían 65 años o más. Gracias a su enfoque multidisciplinario e integrado con respecto a la atención, este centro de APS pasó a formar parte de un selecto grupo dentro del extenso sistema de atención primaria de Canadá.
Resultados. El análisis del trabajo de APS puso de manifiesto ideas arraigadas e inconcientes acerca de los límites y las limitaciones de la atención prestada. En el sentido retórico de la APS, el CMD era elogiado por muchos. En la práctica, sin embargo, era difícil lograr el enfoque de equipo colaborativo multidisciplinario.
Conclusiones. La exitosa implementación de un enfoque de CMD en la APS exige apartarse del estilo de atención centrada en el médico. Esto sólo puede lograrse cuando cambian las estructuras subyacentes, los valores, las relaciones de poder y los papeles a desempeñar, definidos por los sistemas de salud y la comunidad en general, donde los médicos tienen tradicionalmente una posición por encima de la de otros proveedores de atención sanitaria. La metodología de IAPBC permite a los miembros de la comunidad y a los profesionales relacionados con la salud que los atienden apropiarse de la investigación y reflejarse críticamente en ciclos iterativos de evaluación. Esto ofrece a los médicos una oportunidad de implementar cambios importantes basados en análisis generados internamente.

The Vida Chile program: results and challenges with health promotion policy in Chile, 1998–2006

The Government of Chile has placed a high priority on health promotion. This is evident in the advances made through its National Plan for Health Promotion (Plan Nacional de Promoción de la Salud) and the Vida Chile National Council for Health Promotion (Consejo Nacional para la Promoción de la Salud Vida Chile). Chaired by the minister of health, Vida Chile is made up of 28 public and private institutions from around the country. Vida Chile has a network of local councils that have been established in the country’s comunas (communes, or local-level divisions of the country’s provinces) and that include government officials and representatives of local societal and community organizations and private businesses. This report details the methods used to evaluate the National Plan as well as provides a preliminary assessment of the technical and financial results for the 1998–2006 period. Coverage indicators (number of participants; number of accredited health-promoting schools, workplaces, and universities; and number of health promotion events) and the extent of strategy implementation were used to measure the success of the program. Health promotion activities grew markedly during this period. Among the notable accomplishments were the following four: (1) 98% of the communes now have their own community health promotion plan and intersectoral Vida Chile committee to implement the plan, (2) there has been an increase in societal and community groups involved in the health promotion strategies, (3) 34% of the primary and secondary schools have become accredited health-promoting schools, and (4) approximately 20% of the total population benefited directly from community-health-plan activities in 2006. The average per capita cost of the community health plans’ activities in 2006 was US$ 6.60. The two most important factors that facilitated the operation of the local health promotion plans were participation by community and societal groups and having an adequate budget for the local activities. Hindering factors included a lack of time and/or human resources to devote to health promotion, a geographically dispersed population, and difficulty in accessing the activities.

La prioridad política otorgada por el Gobierno de Chile a la promoción de la salud se expresa en el desarrollo alcanzado por el Consejo Vida Chile y su Plan Nacional de Promoción de la Salud (PNPS). En este artículo se presenta el modelo evaluativo del PNPS chileno y sus principales resultados preliminares en el ámbito técnico y económico en el período 1998–2006. Para medir los resultados de las metas de proceso se utilizaron indicadores de cobertura (número de personas, de espacios promotores de la salud y de actividades) y del grado de cumplimiento de las estrategias. El número de actividades durante el período aumentó significativamente; 98% de los municipios del país cuentan con un plan comunal de promoción y un comité Vida Chile, que surge como instancia de trabajo intersectorial y ejecutora del Plan Comunal de Promoción; se incrementó el número de organizaciones sociales incorporadas a las estrategias de promoción de la salud; 34% de los establecimientos de educación del país (preescolar, básica y media) resultaron acreditadas como entidades promotoras de la salud; y aproximadamente 20% de la población total del país de todos los grupos de edad recibió beneficios directos de los planes comunales de promoción en 2006, entre otros logros. El costo total anual per capita de los planes comunales ascendió a $US 6,60. Los principales factores facilitadores identificados fueron contar con la participación de las organizaciones sociales y redes comunitarias y disponer de un presupuesto adecuado para el plan comunal. Los factores obstaculizadores más frecuentes fueron la falta de tiempo o de recursos humanos para la promoción, la dispersión geográfica de la población y los problemas de accesibilidad a las actividades. Se hacen recomendaciones para la aplicación y el mejoramiento de los programas de promoción de la salud en la comunidad.

The future of primary health care (PHC) has been the topic of intense debate and discussion in Canada. In 2003, Canada’s First Ministers (the Prime Minister and the Provincial and Territorial Premiers) adopted the Accord on Health Care Renewal (1). PHC was one of five priority-action areas named in the Accord. However, the Accord was adopted by a federal Liberal government that was subsequently replaced, in early 2006, by a minority Conservative one. The new government did not identify PHC renewal as one of its top priorities, despite the existence of the Accord. The Primary Health Care Transition Fund (PHCTF), initiated in 2000 to support innovations in PHC practice, also completed its funding of projects in 2006. Evaluations of those projects and the overall initiative are underway. These developments raise questions about the future of PHC reform in Canada at the level of the federal government; however, they do not diminish the importance of PHC reform to the provincial and territorial governments, which are constitutionally responsible for the delivery of health services. Further, the issues that the Accord was intended to address—challenges to the PHC, stimulating innovations, and naming PHC as a cornerstone of the Canadian health care system—remain concerns of health care providers, patients, and managers alike. Moreover, the question of concern here—the lack of gender sensitivity in overall package of reforms—remains a problem despite the change in government.

Más allá de vectores y portadoras: reflexiones sobre la mujer y la reforma de la atención primaria de salud en Canadá

La reforma de la atención primaria de salud (APS) tradicional en Canadá está enfocada en la modificación del proceso de pago a los médicos y en el perfeccionamiento de la eficiencia organizacional. Aunque algunos de los cambios propuestos benefician a las mujeres, puede que otros no. Es necesario hacer un análisis explícito de género de los diversos modelos de reforma de la APS. Como las mujeres y los hombres tienen desiguales necesidades de salud y utilizan los servicios de salud de manera diferente, las reformas que tomen en cuenta estas diferencias serán más eficaces. Además, un enfoque más amplio al implementar la APS, que esté más cerca del espíritu de la Declaración de Alma-Ata e incorpore un análisis basado en el género, aumentará la eficacia de la APS con relación a las mujeres en Canadá.

Primary health care (PHC) is defined as “essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound, and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at a cost that the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-reliance and selfdetermination” (1). Its effectiveness is also a measure of the extent to which the availability of resources, successful integration with other sectors (e.g., education, agriculture), and a broad-based community partnership is achieved (2, 3).

Retos y respuestas del sector salud más allá de la Declaración de Alma-Ata: una perspectiva caribeña

Al igual que el resto del mundo, el Caribe ha sido testigo del drástico paso de las enfermedades nutricionales y transmisibles a las enfermedades no transmisibles y crónicas. No obstante, en el Caribe este cambio ha coincidido con una nueva dinámica, creada por la emergencia de enfermedades transmisibles —como la infección por el VIH/sida— junto con los problemas relacionados con el envejecimiento, las enfermedades cardiovasculares, la violencia y las lesiones, entre otros. En este artículo se hace una revisión de la historia de la atención sanitaria en el Caribe, los retos y enfoques del sector salud y la nueva orientación en la atención primaria de salud (APS). Las observaciones se basan en trabajos publicados. En el Caribe, la Declaración de Alma-Ata sirvió como importante punto de giro y ofreció orientación, apoyo y dirección a medida que los países perfilaban sus servicios de salud para satisfacer sus necesidades. La creatividad y el ingenio surgieron como rasgos distintivos del enfoque caribeño en la reestructuración de la APS, ante los retos económicos, sociales, culturales, de recursos humanos y de políticas que enfrentaban. El fortalecimiento de de la capacidad institucional, la extensión de los programas sociales, los esquemas nacionales de seguros de salud, los programas específicos de promoción de salud y la ampliación de la investigación en apoyo al desarrollo de políticas continúan evidenciando el esfuerzo caribeño para responder a los cruciales retos epidemiológicos. A pesar de esos retos, se han establecido alianzas dentro y fuera del Caribe. Además, la Carta del Caribe para la Promoción de la Salud ha servido como elemento crítico para el desarrollo de la APS.

The Family Health Program and the construction of a new model for primary care in Brazil

As part of the implementation of the country’s Unified Health System (Sistema Único de Saúde), the Brazilian Government created, in the second half of the 1990s, the Family Health Program (FHP) (Programa de Saúde da Família), based on community-oriented, multidisciplinary care serving people organized into small groups. For this study, we evaluated the implementation of the FHP, based on three criteria: (1) the construction of the program as an entry point for most health needs and for access to specialized care, (2) the program’s linkages with a comprehensive network of health services, and (3) the incorporation of new care practices into the health system. We found that the implementation of the FHP was far from uniform. In some municipalities the FHP is a focused program that runs in parallel with other primary care efforts. However, in other municipalities the FHP is viewed as a strategy aimed at changing the primary care model, and it partially or completely replaces preexisting primary care health units. Our research confirms a trend toward incremental change in the primary care model in Brazil. However, the expansion of the FHP in large urban areas faces several obstacles to guaranteeing all individuals access to comprehensive care with adequate clinical and collective health services, including secondary and tertiary care. The positive results that we found with some of the experiences with the FHP indicate that, in addition to increased federal financial incentives, the success of the FHP depends on creative local strategies to deal with Brazil’s diversity.

A implantação do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) no Brasil a partir da década de 1990 representou uma importante inflexão no padrão historicamente consolidado de organização dos serviços de saúde no país. Financiado com recursos fiscais, o SUS fundamentou- se em três princípios básicos: i) universalidade do acesso aos serviços em todos os níveis de assistência para todos os cidadãos brasileiros, independentemente de renda, classe social, etnia, ocupação e contribuição; ii) descentralização em direção aos estados e municípios, com redefinição das atribuições e responsabilidades dos três níveis de governo; e iii) participação popular na definição da política de saúde em cada nível de governo, bem como no acompanhamento de sua execução. Na segunda metade da década, o processo de implantação do SUS caminhou pari passu à adoção de uma série de medidas governamentais voltadas para o fortalecimento da atenção básica de saúde, entendida pelo Ministério da Saúde como “um conjunto de ações, de caráter individual ou coletivo, situadas no primeiro nível de atenção dos sistemas de saúde, voltadas para a promoção da saúde, a prevenção de agravos, o tratamento e a reabilitação” (1). Após décadas de privilégio à atenção hospitalar, herança da medicina previdenciária, em que a alocação de recursos federais em estados e municípios se dava com base principalmente na produção de serviços e na capacidade instalada, os esforços, programas e investimentos públicos passaram a se concentrar na atenção básica, com a adoção do Programa de Saúde da Família (PSF), por meio de incentivos financeiros específicos e da criação de mecanismos de transferência de recursos federais calculados com base no número de habitantes de cada município (per capita).

Community-oriented primary care: a public health model in primary care

The community-oriented primary care (COPC) model strives to efficiently distribute, organize, and systematize existing health care resources. In addition to promoting healthy lifestyles within the community, the COPC model enables the health care team and the community to cooperate in identifying and prioritizing health issues. Together they develop and implement prevention and treatment plans for those priority areas. With COPC, the health services assume responsibility for the health of a defined population. The health services not only treat diseases but also develop programs for health promotion, protection, and maintenance. Taking this approach, COPC integrates individual and family clinical care with public health, reflecting the spirit of the International Conference on Primary Health Care held in Alma-Ata in 1978. COPC is a systematic process, with flexible principles and methodologies that can be modified to meet the specific challenges of any health care team and community. An analysis of various countries’ experiences with COPC shows that applying the model appropriately can improve the general health status of the community and its members.

En los servicios de atención primaria ocurre el primer contacto entre las personas y los trabajadores de la salud. Sin embargo, las características de estos servicios, la gama de sus actividades, sus logros y las barreras para acceder a ellos varían de un país a otro de acuerdo con el sistema de servicios de salud establecido y el contexto socioeconómico, cultural y político imperante. El interés y las acciones relacionados con la atención primaria de salud (APS) en el mundo aumentaron substancialmente a partir de la Conferencia Internacional sobre APS, celebrada en Alma-Ata en 1978. Sin embargo, las decisiones políticas adoptadas y los cambios en su organización han tenido una evolución dispar. En efecto, en respuesta a la Declaración de Alma-Ata se desarrollaron diferentes modelos de APS, los cuales generaron interrogantes en cuanto a su eficacia para mejorar el estado de salud de la comunidad.

Stress: diagnosis of military police personnel in a Brazilian city

Objectives. To diagnose the occurrence and stage of stress among military police enlisted personnel and officers in the city of Natal (the capital of the state of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil), and to determine the prevalence of physical and mental symptoms.
Method. This cross-sectional descriptive study investigated a sample of 264 individuals from a population of 3 193 military personnel from the Natal police command. The data were collected between June 2004 and January 2005 using Lipp’s Adult Stress Symptoms Inventory (Inventário de Sintomas de Stress para Adultos de Lipp). The research assessed: (1) presence of stress, (2) the stage of stress (alert, resistance, near-burnout, and burnout), (3) the prevalence of physical and mental symptoms, and (4) the relationship between stress and police unit, rank, gender, drinking, smoking, educational level, marital status, age, years of police service, and salary.
Results. No stress symptoms were found in 52.6% of the sample; 47.4% had symptoms. Of the 47.4% of the police personnel with stress symptoms, they were distributed as: 3.4% in the alert stage, 39.8% in the resistance stage, 3.8% in the near-burnout stage, and 0.4% in the burnout stage. Psychological symptoms were recorded in 76.0% of the police personnel with stress, and physical symptoms in 24.0% of them. Of the variables investigated, only gender was related to stress (P = 0.0337), with the female police personnel being more likely to suffer from stress.
Conclusions. The levels of stress and symptoms do not indicate a critical situation of fatigue. However, it is recommended that the police take preventive actions, including implementing an effective program for the diagnosis of, training on, and control of stress.

Objetivos. Diagnosticar a ocorrência e a fase de estresse em policiais militares da Cidade de Natal, Brasil, além de determinar a prevalência de sintomatologia física e mental.
Método. Estudo descritivo, com corte transversal. Foi investigada uma amostra de 264 indivíduos extraída de uma população de 3 193 militares do Comando de Policiamento da Capital. Os dados foram coletados entre junho de 2004 e janeiro de 2005 utilizando-se o Inventário de Sintomas de Stress para Adultos de Lipp. Foi determinada a presença de estresse, a fase de estresse (alerta, resistência, quase-exaustão, exaustão), a prevalência de sintomas físicos e mentais e a relação entre estresse e unidade policial, posto policial, sexo, hábito de beber, fumo, escolaridade, estado civil, idade, tempo de serviço e faixa salarial.
Resultados. A proporção de policiais sem sintomas de estresse foi de 52,6%, enquanto que 47,4% apresentaram sintomatologia. Dos 47,4% com estresse, 3,4% encontravam-se na fase de alerta, 39,8% na fase de resistência, 3,8% na fase de quase-exaustão e 0,4% na fase de exaustão. Sintomas psicológicos foram registrados em 76,0% dos policiais com estresse, e sintomas físicos, em 24,0%. Das variáveis investigadas, a única que apresentou relação com estresse foi o sexo (P = 0,0337), sendo as mulheres as mais afetadas.
Conclusões. Os níveis de estresse e de sintomas não indicaram um quadro de fadiga crítico. É recomendável uma ação preventiva por parte da organização policial, que poderia incluir a aplicação de um programa de diagnóstico, orientação e controle do estresse.

The relationship between socioeconomic factors and maternal and infant health programs in 13 Argentine provinces

Objectives. To analyze the relationship between maternal and infant health and socioeconomic, cultural, and sanitation factors in Argentina; to evaluate how health program quality affects the primary health indicators for mothers and infants.
Methods. This is a cross-sectional study with multiple variables. The authors studied six indicators for maternal and infant health: rates for maternal, infant, neonatal, and postneonatal mortality; the percentage of newborns with low birthweight; and the percentage of premature newborns. The study was conducted in 79 administrative units in 13 provinces that represent different geographic regions of Argentina. They included (1) the provinces of Salta and Jujuy in northwest Argentina; (2) the provinces of Córdoba, Santa Fe, and Buenos Aires in central Argentina; (3) the provinces of Entre Ríos and Misiones in the Mesopotamia or northeast region; (4) the provinces of San Luis, San Juan, and Mendoza in the Cuyo or northwest, Andean region; and (5) the provinces of Neuquén, Río Negro, and Chubut in the south. The explanatory variable in the study was the quality of health programs, controlled by socioeconomic, cultural, and sanitation factors in 1999 and 2000. The definition of program quality (“poor,” “average,” “good,” and “very good”) was based on quantitative and qualitative analysis of selected variables such as policies, organization, and procedures as determined by the investigators. Documentation was obtained from secondary official sources. The investigators interviewed 117 health system managers (including supervisors of provincial and local health programs, administrators of maternal and child health programs, and hospital directors), who provided information on characteristics and indicators of the health programs.
Results. There were marked geographic differences in the levels of maternal and infant health, medical care, and socioeconomic, cultural, and sanitation factors. Only 10.0% of health programs were classified as “very good,” 35.4% as “good,” 31.6% as “average,” and 23.0% as “poor.” There was a significant correlation (P < 0.05) between rates of infant and postneonatal mortality and adverse socioeconomic circumstances. There was also a significant correlation between the percentage of low birthweight infants and the quality of health programs.
Conclusions. There are clear disparities in the level of maternal and infant health care in different administrative units in Argentina. The infant mortality rate was associated with variations in socioeconomic, cultural, and sanitation factors and with the quality of health programs. Health programs improved infant health when appropriately implemented, even in adverse socioeconomic and sanitation conditions.

Objetivos. Analizar la relación entre la salud maternoinfantil y los factores determinantes socioeconómicos, culturales y sanitarios y evaluar el efecto de la calidad de los programas de salud sobre los principales indicadores de salud maternoinfantil.
Métodos. Estudio analítico de corte transversal con múltiples variables. Se estudiaron seis indicadores maternoinfantiles: las tasas de mortalidad materna, infantil, neonatal y posneonatal y los porcentajes de bajo peso al nacer y de prematuros. El estudio se realizó en 79 unidades administrativas de 13 provincias argentinas distribuidas en las cuatro principales regiones del país: Norte (Salta, Jujuy y Misiones), Centro (Córdoba, Santa Fe y Buenos Aires), Litoral (Entre Ríos), Cuyo (San Luis, San Juan y Mendoza) y Sur (Neuquén, Río Negro y Chubut). Como variable explicativa se utilizó la calidad de los programas de salud, controlada por los factores determinantes socioeconómicos, culturales y sanitarios (período 1999–2000). La calidad de los programas (mala, regular, buena y muy buena) se basó en el análisis cuantitativo y cualitativo de variables seleccionadas de políticas, organización y procesos, según el juicio consensuado de los investigadores. La información documental se obtuvo de fuentes oficiales secundarias y las características e indicadores de los programas de salud se derivaron de las entrevistas a 117 referentes clave.
Resultados. Se encontraron marcadas diferencias geográficas en el nivel de salud maternoinfantil, la atención médica y los factores condicionantes de la salud. Solo 10,0% de los programas de salud fueron calificados como muy buenos, 35,4% como buenos, 31,6% como regulares y 23,0% como malos. Se encontró una correlación significativa (P < 0,05) entre las tasas de mortalidad infantil y posneonatal y la condición socioeconómica desfavorable y entre las tasas de mortalidad infantil y neonatal y el porcentaje de bajo peso al nacer, por un lado, y la calidad de los programas por el otro.
Conclusiones. En Argentina, el nivel de salud maternoinfantil muestra marcadas diferencias entre las unidades administrativas. La tasa de mortalidad infantil estuvo asociada con las variaciones de los factores determinantes socioeconómicos, culturales y sanitarios y con la calidad de los programas de salud. Estos últimos mejoraron los niveles de salud infantil cuando se implementaron adecuadamente, incluso en condiciones socioeconómicas y sanitarias desfavorables.

Prevalence of postural changes in high school students in a city in southern Brazil

Objective. To estimate the prevalence of lateral and anteroposterior postural changes in female adolescents and to investigate whether these changes are associated with certain socioeconomic, demographic, anthropometric, or behavioral variables.
Methods. This epidemiologic survey included a representative sample of 495 high school students from regular day school programs in the city of São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, which is in the South region of Brazil. The students, who were 14 to 18 years old, were assessed in October and November of 2004. Postural changes were defined as skews in the spinal curvature, identified through noninvasive postural assessment.
Results. The prevalence of lateral changes was 66% (95% confidence interval (CI): 61.5% to 70.0%) vs. 70% for anteroposterior changes (95% CI: 65.2% to 73.5%). Lateral changes were more prevalent in students with a normal body mass index (prevalence ratio (PR) = 1.32; 95% CI: 1.09 to 1.59) and in those who watched television for more than 10 hours weekly (PR = 1.16; 95% CI: 1.02 to 1.32). The prevalence of anteroposterior changes was higher in students whose parents/guardians had no schooling or only had elementary schooling (female guardians: PR = 1.30, 95% CI of 1.09 to 1.55; male guardians: PR = 1.20, 95% CI of 1.02 to 1.40) and in students who were overweight or obese (PR = 1.33; 95% CI of 1.19 to 1.48).
Conclusions. The high prevalence of postural changes observed is reason for concern since these changes can translate into spinal problems in the medium to long term. Health professionals, including physical education teachers, should be trained to perform postural assessments, which should be routinely done in schools.

Objetivos. Estimar a prevalência de alterações posturais laterais e ântero-posteriores em adolescentes do sexo feminino e verificar se determinados fatores socioeconômicos, demográficos, antropométricos e comportamentais estão associados a essas alterações posturais.
Métodos. Inquérito epidemiológico com amostra representativa de 495 estudantes do ensino médio regular diurno, com idade de 14 a 18 anos na Cidade de São Leopoldo, Brasil. As estudantes foram avaliadas nos meses de outubro e novembro de 2004. As alterações posturais foram definidas como alterações nas curvas fisiológicas da coluna vertebral, identificadas através de avaliação postural não-invasiva.
Resultados. Observou-se uma prevalência de 66% (IC95%: 61,5 a 70,0) para as alterações laterais e de 70% (IC95%: 65,2 a 73,5) para as alterações ântero-posteriores. As alterações laterais foram mais prevalentes nas alunas com índice de massa corporal normal (razão de prevalência, ou RP = 1,32; IC95%: 1,09 a 1,59) e nas que assistiam à televisão por mais de 10 horas semanais (RP = 1,16; IC95%: 1,02 a 1,32). A prevalência de alterações ântero-posteriores foi maior nas alunas cujos responsáveis estudaram até o nível fundamental (responsáveis femininos, RP = 1,30; IC95%: 1,09 a 1,55; e responsáveis masculinos, RP = 1,20; IC95%: 1,02 a 1,40) e nas alunas com sobrepeso ou obesidade (RP = 1,33; IC95%: 1,19 a 1,48).
Conclusões. Preocupa a alta prevalência de alterações na postura das adolescentes, uma vez que essas alterações podem gerar problemas na coluna vertebral a médio e longo prazo. É importante que profissionais da área da saúde, inclusive professores de educação física, estejam aptos a realizar avaliações posturais, e que esse procedimento seja realizado rotineiramente nas escolas.