Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública/Pan American Journal of Public Health

Health, equity, and the Millennium Development Goals

In September 2000 representatives of 189 countries met for the Millennium Summit, which the United Nations convened in New York City, and adopted the declaration that provided the basis for formulating the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The eight goals are part of a long series of initiatives that governments, the United Nations system, and international financial institutions have undertaken to reduce world poverty. Three of the eight goals deal with health, so the health sector will be responsible for implementing, monitoring, and evaluating measures proposed to meet targets that have been formulated: to reduce by two-thirds the mortality rate in children under 5 years of age between 1990 and 2015; to reduce by three-quarters the maternal mortality rate between 1990 and 2015; and to halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS by the year 2015, as well as to halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria, tuberculosis, and other major diseases. The health sector must also work with other parties to achieve targets connected with two other of the goals: to improve access to affordable essential drugs, and to reduce the proportion of persons who do not have safe drinking water. Adopting a strategy focused on the most vulnerable groups—ones concentrated in locations and populations with the greatest social exclusion—would make possible the largest total reduction in deaths among children, thus reaching the proposed target as well as producing greater equity. In the Region of the Americas the principal challenges in meeting the MDGs are: improving and harmonizing health information systems; designing health programs related to the MDGs that bring together the set of services and interventions that have the greatest impact, according to the special characteristics of the populations who are intended to be the beneficiaries; strengthening the political will to support the MDGs; and guaranteeing funding for the measures undertaken to attain the MDGs.

This paper considers the implications that distinct organizing principles for health systems have for the control of infectious diseases. The paper takes the health systems in Mexico and Cuba as examples of neighboring but widely divergent systems, producing different pubic health outcomes. The paper will look at the dissimilar organizing principles of these two systems, along with their programs and outcomes in relation to five of the most important and dangerous infectious diseases. The paper will then consider what broader lessons might be drawn from the experiences in Cuba and Mexico.

Mexico has pursued a federal and neoliberal system, based on tripartite social insurance (State, employer, and employee contributions), private "partnerships" (private-for-profit investment in public services), and competitive service provision (competitive rather than coordinated services). On the other hand, Cuba has maintained a public system, with guaranteed free and universal access, universal patient registration, assignment of all persons to a family doctor, and centralized public coordination of services. How have these two health systems approached tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, diarrhea, measles, and malaria?

In recent decades both countries have made substantial progress in dealing with these five diseases, but Cuba has maintained a superior performance, despite having a lower income per capita and less total Government funding available. This at first seems to contradict the broad international correlation between income levels and health outcomes. It also poses questions for the "pro-poor" policies that the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (the wealthy countries' club) suggests for developing countries. Those policies emphasize "scaling up resources and private investment," including with competitive service provision and expanded "choice" in health services (1, 2).

Important research (3) has demonstrated that general income growth has less correlation with reductions in major categories of mortality and with other major advances in public health than do the education of women and the implementation of appropriate technology. The question of the contribution of other social and organizational factors in reducing mortality and morbidity levels is left open. However, it is well established, for example, that major reductions in maternal mortality are much more strongly linked to the presence of a skilled birth assistant than to expensive facilities or high technology (4).

What then of infectious disease? In most poor and developing countries, epidemics of tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, diarrhea, measles, and malaria are major killers. While highly controlled in most wealthy or "low-mortality" countries, these five diseases each kill many hundreds of thousands of people worldwide every year, as do poor maternal-infant health conditions and nutritional disorders. In 2002, for example, HIV/AIDS killed 2.8 million persons worldwide, tuberculosis 1.6 million, diarrheal diseases 1.8 million, malaria 1.2 million, and measles 760 000 (5). Beyond the bland demands for "broad-based economic growth" (6), how might the organization of health policy be linked to substantial advances in combating these diseases?

Most of the serious infectious diseases that affect developing countries are no longer the primary health problems of the more wealthy countries. Nor are infectious diseases the main problems of Mexico and Cuba. In recent years, these two countries have been wrestling with these "preventable" diseases and, to varying degrees, have overcome them. Because of their divergent systems and their differing outcomes with infectious diseases, it seems that a comparative study of Mexico and Cuba might be enlightening.

La estructuración de los sistemas de salud y el control de las enfermedades infecciosas: un vistazo a México y a Cuba

En este trabajo se examinan las consecuencias que tienen para el control de las enfermedades infecciosas diferentes maneras de concebir la organización de los sistemas de salud. En particular se examinan las bases teóricas de la organización de los sistemas de salud de México y de Cuba, junto con sus programas y resultados, en conexión con cinco de las principales y más peligrosas enfermedades infecciosas: la tuberculosis, la infección por VIH y el sida, la diarrea, el sarampión y el paludismo. México ha tenido un sistema federal y neoliberal basado en un programa de seguridad social tripartito (el Estado, el empleador, y aportaciones del empleado), en consorcios del sector privado (inversiones en servicios públicos por parte de entidades privadas con fines de lucro) y en la provisión competitiva de servicios (servicios competitivos en lugar de coordinados). En cambio, Cuba ha tenido un sistema público con acceso libre garantizado para toda la población, una coordinación pública centralizada, y la inscripción de todos los pacientes sin excepción (todo miembro de la población tiene un registro médico y un médico asignado). ¿Cómo se han lidiado con las enfermedades infecciosas más peligrosas de la humanidad dos sistemas de salud con estas características? La superioridad casi invariable que ha mostrado Cuba en el control de las enfermedades parece depender del acceso garantizado que tiene todo habitante a los servicios de salud, a la coordinación centralizada del sistema sanitario y a una abundancia de trabajadores de salud bien capacitados. Por otro lado, en México la provisión desigual de servicios asistenciales no ha logrado satisfacer las necesidades de todos los mexicanos y la expansión de los servicios privados difícilmente podrá compensar las carencias observadas en las zonas más pobres del país. Las deficiencias de infraestructura y de otros recursos imponen límites sobre lo que Cuba puede alcanzar, pero son peores los resultados de salud que se obtienen con la distribución desigual de recursos en México. Comparar a México con Cuba nos permite reflexionar en torno a la importancia de las bases organizativas de un sistema de salud, impidiéndonos optar por una mayor infusión de capital sin más. Estos resultados refuerzan ciertas inquietudes que han surgido en el pasado acerca de los vínculos existentes entre la desigualdad social, el acceso desigual a los servicios, y la obtención de resultados de salud inferiores.

Indicators of the effectiveness of epidemiological surveillance for acute flaccid paralysis in Brazil from 1990 through 2000

OBJECTIVES: To describe and compare indicators of the quality of epidemiological surveillance for acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) before Brazil's certification as a poliomyelitis-free area (1990 through 1994) and after that certification (1995 through 2000).
METHODS: The following variables were studied: minimum prevalence (reporting annually at least 1 case of AFP per 100 000 individuals younger than 15 years), negative reporting (weekly reporting of the absence of AFP cases by at least 80% of the reporting units in each region), time of investigation (investigating at least 80% of the AFP cases within 48 hours of their being reported), and diagnostic investigation (collection of two stool samples for viral culture in the 2 weeks following the onset of paralysis in 80% or more of the AFP cases). The results were categorized as adequate if they were equal to or higher than the value considered as being effective, or as inadequate if they were below this value. The percentage rate of adequate values was calculated for each of Brazil's 27 federal political divisions (26 states plus the Federal District) in each year, for each of the two periods studied. The final means per period, per federal political division, and per region were also calculated.
RESULTS: For Brazil overall, minimum prevalence decreased from 1.3 per 100 000 individuals younger than 15 years in the precertification period to 0.9 per 100 000 in the postcertification period, but the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.08). While negative reporting was adequate in both periods (87% and 84%, respectively), the percentage rate of effectiveness was 6.6% lower in the postcertification period (P > 0.21). The effectiveness in the time required to investigate AFP cases increased from 60.7% to 71.6% (P > 0.06). The collection of stool samples was inadequate both before and after certification (54% and 52%, respectively).
CONCLUSIONS: Despite the absence of indigenous wild virus poliomyelitis cases in Brazil in the postcertification period, the quality of epidemiological surveillance indicators is still less than desirable. This may delay the detection and investigation of AFP cases and compromise the global poliomyelitis eradication effort. New information strategies that are being made available for the health system in Brazil may improve the effectiveness of the national poliomyelitis control program.

OBJETIVOS: Descrever e comparar os indicadores de qualidade de vigilância epidemiológica para paralisias flácidas agudas nos períodos pré (1990 a 1994) e pós-certificação (1995 a 2000) do Brasil como zona livre da poliomielite.
MÉTODOS: Foram consideradas as seguintes variáveis: prevalência mínima (notificação >= 1 caso em 100 000 indivíduos com menos de 15 anos de idade), notificação negativa (ausência de casos informada semanalmente por no mínimo 80% das unidades notificadoras em cada região), tempo de investigação do caso (investigação de 80% ou mais dos casos notificados de paralisias flácidas agudas até 48 horas depois da notificação) e investigação diagnóstica (coleta de duas amostras de fezes para cultura viral nas 2 semanas seguintes ao início da deficiência motora em 80% ou mais dos casos de paralisias flácidas agudas). Os resultados foram classificados como adequados se fossem iguais ou superiores ao valor considerado como efetivo, ou como inadequados se estivessem abaixo desse valor. Foi calculada a razão percentual de valores adequados alcançados em cada unidade federada em cada ano, para cada pesríodo do estudo. Também foram apresentadas as médias finais por período, unidade e região.
RESULTADOS: Considerando os resultados para o Brasil como um todo, o indicador de prevalência mínima apresentou redução de 1,3 para 0,9 por 100 000 menores de 15 anos no período pós-certificação, mas a diferença não foi significativa (P > 0,08). A notificação negativa manteve valores médios adequados nos dois períodos (87 e 84%), mas a razão percentual de efetividade foi 6,6% menor no período pós-certificação (P > 0,21). O tempo de investigação de casos de paralisia flácida aguda melhorou sua efetividade em 10,9% (P > 0,06) no período pós-certificação. A coleta de fezes permaneceu inadequada nos dois períodos (54 e 52%).
CONCLUSÕES: Apesar da ausência de casos autóctones de poliomielite por vírus selvagem no Brasil no período pós-certificação, são ainda desfavoráveis os indicadores de qualidade da vigilância epidemiológica, o que pode retardar a detecção e investigação de casos de paralisias flácidas agudas e comprometer o programa de erradicação global da poliomielite. As novas estratégias de informação que estão sendo disponibilizadas para o sistema de saúde do Brasil poderão promover uma melhora na efetividade do programa nacional de controle da poliomielite.

Women’s empowerment and life expectancy at birth in Mexico

Objectives. To assess the effect of women’s empowerment (WE) on life expectancy at birth (LEB) in the federative states of Mexico and to compare the results of measuring WE with various compound indicators that reflect, to a greater or lesser degree, an individual or population focus.
Methods. This was an ecological study conducted in Mexico’s 32 federative states. We estimated the correlations between overall and sex-specific LEB on the one hand, and a measure of gender empowerment (MGE), the index of women’s ability to make decisions within the household (WADH), the index of women’s autonomy (IWA), income inequality, certain aspects of the physical environment, the proportion of the population who spoke an indigenous language, and the net migratory rate on the other. By using robust regressions, we studied the effect on LEB of MGE, IWA, and WADH, after mutually adjusting for other independent variables.
Results. A very strong inverse correlation (–0.93) was found between overall LEB and factors of the physical environment linked to population vulnerability and biodiversity. Significant direct and inverse correlations were also found between LEB on the one hand and WADH, IWA, net migratory rate, the percentage of the population that spoke an indigenous language, and the Gini coefficient on the other. Multiple robust regressions showed inverse associations between MGE and LEB in women (b: –1.44; 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: –2.71 to –0.17). WAI was positively associated with LEB in men (b: 0.88; 95% CI: 0.01 to 1.75) and women (b: 0.66; 95% CI: 0.03 to 1.30).
Conclusion. The use of MGE as a surrogate for WE failed to reveal a positive effect of WE on LEB in Mexico. It is necessary to review the components that make up MGE and the relevance of using such a measure in different contexts. WAI showed a greater association with LEB and its effect was greater among men. This indicator made it possible to measure WE in Mexico and its use is recommended, as long as there are no other indicators available for capturing more effectively all the components that affect WE.

Objetivos. Evaluar el efecto del empoderamiento de las mujeres (EM) sobre la esperanza de vida al nacer (EVN) en los estados federativos de México y comparar los resultados de medir el EM con diferentes indicadores compuestos que privilegian en mayor o menor medida un enfoque individual o poblacional.
Métodos. Estudio ecológico con datos de los 32 estados federativos mexicanos. Se estimaron las correlaciones entre la EVN total y por sexo y la medida de empoderamiento de género (MEG), el índice de poder de decisión de la mujer en el hogar (IPDH), el índice de autonomía de la mujer (IAM), la desigualdad en el ingreso, algunos factores del ambiente físico, la proporción de la población que hablaba lengua indígena y la tasa migratoria neta. Mediante regresiones robustas se exploró el efecto de la MEG y los índices de autonomía y de poder de decisión de la mujer en el hogar sobre la EVN, ajustado por las demás variables independientes.
Resultados. Se encontró una correlación inversa muy fuerte (–0,93) entre la EVN total y el factor del ambiente físico que caracteriza la vulnerabilidad poblacional y la biodiversidad. También se encontraron correlaciones significativas, tanto directas como inversas, entre la EVN por una parte y el IPDH, el IAM, la tasa migratoria neta, el porcentaje de la población que hablaba lengua indígena y el coeficiente de Gini por la otra. Las regresiones robustas múltiples mostraron asociaciones inversas entre la MEG y la EVN en mujeres (β: –1,44; intervalo de confianza de 95% [IC95%]: –2,71 a –0,17). El IAM se asoció de manera directa con la EVN en hombres (β: 0,88; IC95%: 0,01 a 1,75) y mujeres (β: 0,66; IC95%: 0,03 a 1,30). Conclusión. El uso de la MEG como aproximación al EM no puso de manifiesto efectos positivos del EM sobre la EVN en México. Se deben revisar los elementos que integran la MEG y la pertinencia de su uso en diversos contextos. El IAM mostró una mayor asociación con la EVN y su efecto fue de mayor magnitud en los hombres. Este indicador permitió medir la EM en México y se recomienda usarlo mientras no se tenga otro que permita captar más eficazmente todos los elementos que inciden en el EM.

Data aggregation in measuring inequalities and inequities in the health of populations

Objectives. To compare how different degrees of data aggregation influence the measurement of health inequalities and health inequities within a population, and to assess the appropriateness of those different degrees of data aggregation in performing studies on inequalities and inequities. Methods. As an example, we used data on the infant mortality rate in Costa Rica in 1973 and in 1984 and calculated measurements that are frequently used to quantify inequalities and inequities. Results. According to our results, the inequality measures presented (except for those that were derived using regression models) are not sensitive to data aggregation by socioeconomic groups. However, when geographic areas are compared, more disaggregation of the data results in the measures indicating greater inequality. Conclusions. Our results show that some measures can vary widely depending on the level of data aggregation. It is thus crucial to know how to select these measures and also how to aggregate the data in a way that is consistent with the objectives of each study.

Objetivos. Comparar cómo diferentes grados de agregación de datos repercuten en los resultados de la medición de desigualdades e inequidades de salud en una población y examinar su idoneidad para estudios sobre el tema. Métodos. A modo de ejemplo, se calcularon las medidas más frecuentemente utilizadas para cuantificar las desigualdades e inequidades reflejadas por la tasa de mortalidad infantil en Costa Rica entre 1973 y 1984. Resultados. Según los resultados obtenidos, las medidas de desigualdad presentadas (a excepción de las que se basaron en modelos de regresión) no parecen ser sensibles al grado de agregación de los datos utilizados cuando las unidades objeto del estudio son grupos socioeconómicos. Por el contrario, cuando las unidades comparadas son zonas geográficas, mayores grados de desagregación de los datos redundan en medidas que indican la presencia de un mayor grado de desigualdad. Conclusiones. Los resultados indican que algunas medidas generan valores muy dispares según el nivel de agregación utilizado, por lo que se demuestra la importancia de elegir tanto las medidas como la agregación que sean adecuadas a la luz de los objetivos de cada estudio.

Using different indicators of preventable mortality as an approach to measuring health inequalities in Chilean municipalities

Objectives. To analyze differences in avoidable mortality among communes in Chile, using different indicators as an operational approach to estimating health inequalities. Methods. Small area variation analysis in a sample of 117 of all 335 Chilean communes that existed in 1992. By using secondary data, we developed and compared some avoidable-mortality indicators, such as potential years of life lost (PYLL), avoidable mortality (AM) (based on background and criteria drawn from the literature), health care avoidable mortality (HCAMR), and life expectancy. A socioeconomic development index (SEDI) was also developed. The scope of the variation was estimated through the weighted variation coefficient, the Gini coefficient, the ratio between the values for the quintiles at both extremes of the SEDI distribution, and the ratio of the lowest SEDI quintile to the group of municipalities having a SEDI greater than 0.90 (optimal empirical reference value). The socioeconomic pattern of variations was examined through concentration curves and by comparing communal quintiles based on their SEDI. Results. The various avoidable-mortality indicators used showed an inverse and statistically significant correlation with socioeconomic development, as well as with the profile of the various SEDI quintiles and with the majority of specific causes of avoidable mortality. The distribution profile of AM indicators among SEDI communal quintiles reflects the same tendency, along with most of the mortality from specific avoidable causes. The use of three reference values (the mean, the quintile with the greatest SEDI, and the optimal empirical reference value) makes it possible to measure gaps that could be avoided. The ratio of the lowest SEDI quintile to the empirical optimal reference value was 2.1 for AM, 2.0 for PYLL, 1.7 for infant mortality, and 1.5 for HCAMR. Conclusions. These results, which are consistent with those found in previous published sources, estimate the magnitude and pattern of variations among communes. The results also provide information, based on data for 1992, with which to start monitoring health inequalities among small geographic areas, which were communes in this particular case. Although interventions for promoting equity tend to focus exclusively on communes having lower socioeconomic development and higher rates of avoidable mortality, reducing the latter implies a two-pronged approach: prioritizing interventions targeting underprivileged communes so as to foster equity, while attempting to cover the majority of communes in an effort to prevent avoidable mortality.

Objetivos. Analizar variaciones de mortalidad evitable entre comunas, utilizando diversos indicadores, como aproximación operacional para estimar desigualdades de salud. Métodos. Análisis de variación de áreas pequeñas en una muestra de 117 de las 335 comunas chilenas en 1992. Usando datos secundarios, se desarrollaron y analizaron indicadores de mortalidad evitable, tales como los años de vida potencial perdidos (AVPP), la mortalidad evitable (ME) (con antecedentes y criterios basados en fuentes publicadas), la mortalidad evitable mediante la atención de salud (MEAS), y la esperanza de vida. También se creó un indicador de desarrollo socioeconómico (IDSE). La amplitud de las variaciones observadas entre indicadores se estimó mediante el coeficiente ponderado de variación, el coeficiente de Gini, la razón entre quintiles extremos del IDSE y la razón entre el quintil con el menor IDSE y el grupo de comunas con IDSE mayores de 0,90 (referencia empírica óptima). El perfil socioeconómico de las variaciones se examinó mediante curvas de concentración y la comparación de quintiles comunales según IDSE. Resultados. Los diversos indicadores de ME usados mostraron una relación inversa estadísticamente significativa con el desarrollo socioeconómico, tendencia también observada en el perfil de los quintiles definidos por IDSE y en la mayoría de las causas específicas de mortalidad evitable. El uso de tres niveles de referencia (promedio, quintil con el mayor IDSE y referencia empírica óptima) plantea la medición de distintas brechas que podrían prevenirse. La razón entre el quintil con el menor IDSE y la referencia óptima fue de 2,1 en el caso de la ME, de 2,0 en el caso de los AVPP, de 1,7 en el de la mortalidad infantil y de 1,5 en el de la MEAS. Conclusiones. Los resultados, que coinciden con los hallados en otras fuentes publicadas previamente, ponderan la magnitud y el perfil de las variaciones entre comunas y proveen información, basada en datos de 1992, para iniciar un monitoreo de las desigualdades de salud entre áreas geográficas pequeñas, en este caso las comunas. Aunque las iniciativas por mejorar la equidad se concentran en las comunas de menor desarrollo socioeconómico y mayor mortalidad evitable, reducir esta última implica una tarea con un enfoque doble: dar prioridad de intervención a las comunas más postergadas por un lado, y cubrir la mayoría de las comunas para prevenir la mortalidad evitable por el otro.

Health indicators in the elderly: a comparison of Brazil and the United States

Objective. To identify indicators used in evaluating the population 65 years of age and older in Brazil that are comparable to those used in the United States, and to compare the situation of this age group in the two countries.
Method. This was a descriptive, cross-sectional study, based on secondary data. Brazilian equivalents to the well-being indicators employed in the United States were searched in websites published by government health or planning institutions. Data from national surveys were also employed, and when necessary, data from existing databases were reanalyzed.
Results. Of the 31 indicators used in the United States, an equivalent in Brazil was not found for only three: memory impairment, social activity, and violent crime. In the United States, the number of older individuals was greater; level of education was also higher in this age group. The two countries were similar in terms of health status and life expectancy at 65 years of age. Death rates due to cerebrovascular disease and diabetes were higher in Brazil, while death rates due to malignant neoplasms were higher in the United States. Disabilities and self-reported morbidity due to arthritis and depression were more frequent in the United States. The self-perception of health status as good was higher in Brazil, whereas the indicators related to life habits and risk factors indicated a more favorable situation in the United States.
Conclusions. If the discriminating power of the indicators is truly adequate, the health conditions of the elderly in these two countries are similar.

Objetivo. Identificar no Brasil indicadores equivalentes aos utilizados nos Estados Unidos para avaliar a população com idade de 65 anos ou mais no ano de 2000 e comparar a situação nos dois países.
Método. Este é um estudo descritivo e transversal, baseado em dados secundários. A partir de uma lista de indicadores de bem-estar empregada nos Estados Unidos, equivalentes brasileiros foram pesquisados nos sites de instituições públicas de saúde ou de planejamento. Também foram utilizados dados de pesquisas nacionais e, se necessário, foram feitas reanálises de bases de dados.
Resultados. Dos 31 indicadores que compõem a lista norte-americana, somente para três não foi encontrado um equivalente brasileiro: comprometimento de memória, atividade social e crimes violentos. Nos Estados Unidos, o número de idosos foi maior e a escolaridade desse grupo foi mais alta. Os dois países foram semelhantes em termos de condição de saúde e expectativa de vida aos 65 anos. Maiores taxas de óbito por doença cerebrovascular e diabetes foram registradas no Brasil e por neoplasias malignas nos Estados Unidos. A morbidade auto-referida por artrite e por depressão foi mais freqüente nos Estados Unidos, assim como as incapacidades. A autopercepção de bom estado de saúde foi superior no Brasil, ao passo que os indicadores de hábitos de vida e os fatores de risco revelaram uma melhor situação nos Estados Unidos.
Conclusões. Se o poder discriminatório dos indicadores utilizados for de fato adequado, as condições de saúde dos idosos no ano de 2000 eram próximas nos dois países.

Application of key frameworks to an indicator-based evaluation of environmental health in Latin America and the Caribbean

The establishment of environmental health indicators for assessing the adverse effects of environmental changes on the population’s health and quality of life is, as yet, a goal that has not been fully reached in Latin America and the Caribbean. As such, the United Nations Environment Program and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) have convened Region’s institutions and experts to develop a comprehensive method for assessing environmental health. This paper evaluates several methodologies, comprehensive or otherwise, for assessing health and the environment, and describes the frameworks that have historically undergirded the key methods that have either structured or generated the environmental health indicators being used in Latin America and the Caribbean. The recurring, methodological limitations were identified: (a) relying heavily on secondary data, which points out the need for technological infrastructure that is rarely available in Latin America and the Caribbean today; and (b) a lack of clear criteria for developing inclusive tools that would facilitate the discussion of environmental health issues at the grass-roots level. Despite the progress made by the field of environmental health with regard to understanding its interdisciplinary complexities, intersectoral operations must be improved to favor open communication and implementation of integrated policies on environmental and health.

La construcción de indicadores de salud ambiental para evaluar el efecto adverso de los cambios ambientales sobre el bienestar y la calidad de vida de la población es una meta todavía no alcanzada totalmente en América Latina y el Caribe. Por ello, el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente y la Organización Panamericana de la Salud han convocado a instituciones y especialistas de toda la Región para desarrollar un método integral de evaluación del medio ambiente y la salud. En este trabajo se hace un análisis crítico de varias de las metodologías de evaluación ambiental y sanitaria (integrales o no) y se describen, desde una perspectiva histórica, los marcos conceptuales que fundamentan los principales métodos ordenadores o generadores de indicadores de salud ambiental utilizados en América Latina y el Caribe. Se identificaron dos limitaciones metodológicas recurrentes: a) la fuerte dependencia de datos secundarios, lo que implica la necesidad de una capacidad tecnológica instalada poco accesible en América Latina y el Caribe en la actualidad; y b) la falta de criterios claros para desarrollar instrumentos participativos que faciliten la evaluación de problemas de salud ambiental a nivel local. A pesar de los avances alcanzados en el campo de la salud ambiental en cuanto a la comprensión de su complejidad interdisciplinaria, aún se deben mejorar los mecanismos intersectoriales que favorezcan la discusión e implementación de políticas integradas de medio ambiente y salud.

Antiretroviral drug supply in Argentina: National Program to Combat Human Retroviruses, AIDS, and STDs

Objectives. To evaluate the supply cycle of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs, overseen by the National Program to Combat Human Retroviruses, AIDS, and STDs, through its order fulfillment indicators, and to obtain input from supply chain stakeholders.
Methods. A study was carried out from April–September 2005 in the pharmacies of two hospitals in Rosario, Argentina, involving both a quantitative analysis of indicators and secondary sources and a qualitative evaluation using semistructured interviews.
Results. The indicators reveal the impact that interruptions in ARV supply stream from the Program (central level) have and the overstocking that takes place at the pharmacies (local level) to manage the shortages. Changes in ARV treatment account for over 50% of the prescriptions. Fulfillments fall short of the reference value. The interviewees shared possible strategies for overcoming the communication gaps between levels, for building-up stock, for guaranteeing availability, and for shortening waiting times; reached informal agreements to deal with the lack of policies and the shortage of staff; acknowledged the challenges facing the jurisdictions (central, intermediate, and local/community); and recognized local efforts to improve management.
Conclusions. These challenges could be the starting point for building teams to work on effectively decentralizing the entire supply chain and allowing the Program to fulfill its much-needed oversight role.

Objetivos. Evaluar el circuito de suministro de antirretrovirales (ARV) dentro del Programa Nacional de Lucha contra los Retrovirus del Humano, SIDA y ETS, mediante indicadores de desempeño, y recuperar la perspectiva de actores involucrados en el circuito de provisión. Se busca mejorar las acciones programáticas satisfaciendo las necesidades de los pacientes. Métodos. En el servicio de farmacia de dos hospitales de Rosario, Argentina, de abril a septiembre de 2005 se llevó a cabo una investigación evaluativa con un abordaje cuantitativo, mediante indicadores y basado en fuentes secundarias, y otro cualitativo, con entrevistas semiestructuradas. Resultados. Los indicadores revelan el impacto de las interrupciones en la provisión de ARV desde el Programa (nivel central) y la acumulación de stock en el nivel local para paliar esas faltas. Los cambios de tratamiento con ARV representan más de 50% de las prescripciones. El cumplimiento en el retiro de ARV se aleja del valor de referencia. Los entrevistados describieron estrategias alternativas para superar dificultades de comunicación entre niveles, acumular stock, garantizar disponibilidad y acortar tiempos de espera; se establecieron acuerdos informales ante la falta de normativas y la escasez de recursos humanos; las instancias jurisdiccionales (central, intermedia y local o municipal) suman dificultades, y se reconocen esfuerzos del nivel local para mejorar la gestión. Conclusiones. Estos hallazgos pueden ser el punto de partida para la construcción de propuestas que involucren equipos de trabajo afectados en el circuito de provisión en su totalidad, a fin de lograr una descentralización efectiva, en congruencia con el papel rector que le corresponde necesariamente al Programa.